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Social Services medicine woman cheap 3 mg meloset mastercard, housing departments, Benefit system) actually keeps some young people homeless or in accommodation that makes them vulnerable to homelessness. Functionalist deviance theory can be applied to both positive and negative actions, as a theory it is more renowned for its association with negative actions and popularised by debates on crime and disorder or delinquency. Homelessness from a functionalist deviance perspective is seen both as a threat to society. Words such as dysfunctional have entered the vocabulary of homeless people, probably via the court system or social service intervention. Merton (1949) develops deviancy theory, arguing that the way society is structured. Following those rules results in socialisation and the perpetuation of a given society. However, pressure within society causes some people to abandon the rules of the game creating a state of anomie. Thus deviance is perceived as a negative 32 reaction to a society that excluded some members, with subcultures offering those people a sense of inclusion even though this may be viewed as deviance. Homeless culture then, would be the product of marginalized people within society coming together in reaction against the mainstream to form an alternative parallel culture. Interactionist deviance theorists divert attention away from the individual and social structure, exploring instead the interaction between the deviant and those who define them as such. As an example, Becker (1974) explores deviance and delinquency through labelling theory. This theory neutralises homelessness, seeing the way homelessness is defined and perceived as the object for discussion, rather than the causes and solutions. The problem is that although deviance theorists perceive homelessness as deviant behaviour, the reasons why it is deviant vary enormously. The problem with deviance theory is that it straddles too many grand theories and so has become a metamorphic term that changes according to context and theory held. This theory places emphasis on social process rather than structures and functions. Individuals interpret themselves and their everyday environment in terms of their actions, reactions and interactions with everything around them. This is a self-oriented approach that places the individual at the centre of analysis and looks at the way they construct, deconstruct and reconstruct themselves, their worlds and their own reality. The notion of the individual acting and reacting, constructing and deconstructing both themselves and their worlds is useful when looking at the impact of homelessness on the individual and the choices that they make throughout the process of becoming, being and leaving homelessness. There are a number of theories that have developed directly from symbolic interactionism: 3. Rather than seeing homeless people as passive victims of social structures or their own individual pathologies or dysfunctions, homeless people and people vulnerable to homelessness would be perceived as active agents who directed their own lives. As a theory, therefore, it comes into its own when looking at homeless culture and the way rough sleepers are absorbed into that culture and perceive themselves in relation to others both in that culture and among the housed population. These labels can be both positive and negative, and are applied to acts, individuals or groups. This approach has been influential in the sociological studies of deviance, the regulation of mental illness, the effects of gender labels and the effects of labelling in the classroom. Roles are part taught by others and part learned by the individual through that process of action, reaction and interaction. Furthermore, any one person can have a number of roles that they play either simultaneously or when the situation arises. For example, a person may play the roles of researcher, wife, daughter, sister, student, pupil, stranger, friend. All these roles affect relationships with others, the way people see themselves in certain situations and the way they behave. Goffman developed this theory as part of his research into asylums and their impact on mental health patients (Goffman 1961). Often homeless individuals (and groups) are categorised and defined through typologies, for example, homeless alcoholic, youth homeless, passive beggar. The causes of homelessness are similarly categorised under main headings that can obscure individual causes, for example, family conflict (hides incest, abuse, arguments), relationship breakdown (hides divorce, domestic violence) and lived in institutions (hides ex-servicemen, ex-prisoners, care leavers). The positive side of such labels is that people in the homeless industry know and understand what they mean, many categories indicate a set of needs that are important for hostel management and resettlement. However, as Goffman (1968) points out, many labels have negative consequences, they can have stigma attached to them. For some recovering from homelessness and trying to re-enter housed society, the stigma of having been homeless is a source of shame. They do not want people in their new surroundings to know that they have been homeless. The fear of people finding out makes it difficult to take part in everyday conversations. Similarly, the labels people attach to homeless people affects the way we view them, treat them and even give money. Firstly there was the label that he assigned to homeless people before he became homeless. That view suggests that he did not see himself fitting the label he originally ascribed. A number of critiques of labelling theory have developed, including victim-blaming.

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Social factors can determine whether human behavior tends toward conflict or harmony medications used to treat bipolar buy generic meloset on line. Essentially, people will change their behavior to align with the social situation at hand. If we are in a new situation or are unsure how to behave, we will take our cues from other individuals. The field of social psychology studies topics at both the intraand interpersonal levels. Intrapersonal topics (those that pertain to the individual) include emotions and attitudes, the self, and social cognition (the ways in which we think about ourselves and others). Interpersonal topics (those that pertain to dyads and groups) include helping behavior (Figure 12. Army) Social psychologists focus on how people construe or interpret situations and how these interpretations influence their thoughts, feelings, and behaviors (Ross & Nisbett, 1991). Thus, social psychology studies individuals in a social context and how situational variables interact to influence behavior. In this chapter, we discuss the intrapersonal processes of self-presentation, cognitive dissonance and attitude change, and the interpersonal processes of conformity and obedience, aggression and altruism, and, finally, love and attraction. Situationism is the view that our behavior and actions are determined by our immediate environment and surroundings. In contrast, dispositionism holds that our behavior is determined by internal factors (Heider, 1958). An internal factor is an attribute of a person and includes personality traits and temperament. Social psychologists have tended to take the situationist perspective, whereas personality psychologists have promoted the dispositionist perspective. In fact, the field of social-personality psychology has emerged to study the complex interaction of internal and situational factors that affect human behavior (Mischel, 1977; Richard, Bond, & Stokes-Zoota, 2003). We tend to think that people are in control of their own behaviors, and, therefore, any behavior change must be due to something internal, such as their personality, habits, or temperament. They tend to assume that the behavior of another person is a trait of that person, and to underestimate the power of the situation on the behavior of others. This erroneous assumption is called the fundamental attribution error (Ross, 1977; Riggio & Garcia, 2009). To better understand, imagine this scenario: Greg returns home from work, and upon opening the front door his wife happily greets him and inquires about his day. The most common response is that Greg is a mean, angry, or unfriendly person (his traits). However, imagine that Greg was just laid off from his job due to company downsizing. Your revised explanation might be that Greg was frustrated and disappointed for losing his job; therefore, he was in a bad mood (his state). The fundamental attribution error is so powerful that people often overlook obvious situational influences on behavior. A classic example was demonstrated in a series of experiments known as the quizmaster study (Ross, Amabile, & Steinmetz, 1977). Student participants were randomly assigned to play the role of a questioner (the quizmaster) or a contestant in a quiz game. Questioners developed difficult questions to which they knew the answers, and they presented these questions to the contestants. The contestants answered the questions correctly only 4 out of 10 times (Figure 12. After the task, the questioners and contestants were asked to rate their own general knowledge compared to the average student. In a second study, observers of the interaction also rated the questioner as having more general knowledge than the contestant. Both the contestants and observers made an internal attribution for the performance. They concluded that the questioners must be more intelligent than the contestants. However, it should be noted that some researchers 408 Chapter 12 | Social Psychology have suggested that the fundamental attribution error may not be as powerful as it is often portrayed. In fact, a recent review of more than 173 published studies suggests that several factors. You may be able to think of examples of the fundamental attribution error in your life. People from an individualistic culture, that is, a culture that focuses on individual achievement and autonomy, have the greatest tendency to commit the fundamental attribution error. Individualistic cultures, which tend to be found in western countries such as the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom, promote a focus on the individual. In contrast, people from a collectivistic culture, that is, a culture that focuses on communal relationships with others, such as family, friends, and community (Figure 12. Activities such as (a) preparing a meal, (b) hanging out, and (c) playing a game engage people in a group. Collectivistic cultures, which tend to be found in east Asian countries and in Latin American and African countries, focus on the group more than on the individual (Nisbett, Peng, Choi, & Norenzayan, 2001). Why do you think we underestimate the influence of the situation on the behaviors of othersfi Due to this lack of information we have a tendency to assume the behavior is due to a dispositional, or internal, factor. When it comes to explaining our own behaviors, however, we have much more information available to us. If you came home from school or work angry and yelled at your dog or a loved one, what would your explanation befi As actors of behavior, we have more information available to explain our own behavior. However as observers, we have less information available; therefore, we tend to default to a dispositionist perspective. One study on the actor-observer bias investigated reasons male participants gave for why they liked their girlfriend (Nisbett et al. When asked why participants liked their own girlfriend, participants focused on internal, dispositional qualities of their girlfriends (for example, her pleasant personality).

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Follow-up frequency and duration should be individualized based on patient requirements medications you can take while pregnant for cold purchase meloset, and may be extended beyond 5 years after shared decision-making between the patient and physician. Clinical value of T2-weighted imaging combined with diffusion-weighted imaging in preoperative T staging of urinary bladder cancer: a large-scale, multiobserver prospective study on 3. Metastatic pattern of bladder cancer: correlation with the characteristics of the primary tumor. Prospective study of [18F]fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography/computed tomography for staging of muscleinvasive bladder carcinoma. Gemcitabine (preferred) (category 1) and mitomycin (category 1) are the most commonly used options for intravesical chemotherapy. May also be appropriate in other select situations including cancer in a bladder diverticulum. Highly select patients with cT4b disease that responds to primary treatment may be eligible for cystectomy. For patients who cannot receive neoadjuvant chemotherapy, radical cystectomy alone is an option. The most commonly used option for intravesical chemotherapy is mitomycin; gemcitabine is being utilized in select patients. Most midureteral tumors will also include the common iliac, external iliac, obturator, and hypogastric lymph nodes. Treatment can be associated with patient anxiety, tumor seeding, and the need for multiple procedures and ultimate nephroureterectomy with bladder cuf. Recurrence or tumor persistence might be life-threatening due to disease progression. Papillary urothelial neoplastic lesions: fi Percentage of divergent diferentiation may be stated. If muscularis propria (detrusor muscle) is present and, if present, Lymphoepithelioma-like carcinoma. Presence or absence of lamina propria invasion Undiferentiated carcinoma with trophoblastic giant cells. International Consultation on Urologic Disease-European Association of Urology Consultation on Bladder Cancer 2012. For selected patients, fi Etoposide + cisplatin combination chemotherapy with paclitaxel, ifosfamide, and cisplatin may be Standard cisplatin ineligible 4 11 considered. Pathological response to neoadjuvant chemotherapy for muscle-invasive micropapillary bladder cancer. A phase 2 clinical trial of sequential neoadjuvant chemotherapy with ifosfamide, doxorubicin, and gemcitabine followed by cisplatin, gemcitabine, and ifosfamide in locally advanced urothelial cancer: Final results. Plasmacytoid urothelial carcinoma, a chemosensitive cancer with poor prognosis, and peritoneal carcinomatosis. Prospective trial of ifosfamide, paclitaxel, and cisplatin in patients with advanced non-transitional cell carcinoma of the urothelial tract. Postoperative radiotherapy of carcinoma in bilharzial bladder: improved disease free survival through improving local control. Evidence supporting preoperative chemotherapy for small cell carcinoma of the bladder: A retrospective review of the M. Reassessment of disease activity should be performed in patients with new or worsening signs or symptoms of disease, regardless of the time interval from previous studies. The follow-up tables are to provide guidance, and should be modified for the individual patient based on sites of disease, biology of disease, and length of time on treatment. However, it does not reduce the risk of progression or the risk of cancer mortality. Other options include: epirubicin, valrubicin, docetaxel, or sequential gemcitabine/docetaxel or gemcitabine/mitomycin. Administration can be percutaneous or through a retrograde approach using a catheter. There is no standard regimen and patients should be referred to an institution with experience in this treatment or a clinical trial. Effect of intravesical instillation of gemcitabine vs saline immediately following resection of suspected low-grade non-muscleinvasive bladder cancer on tumor recurrence. Value of an immediate intravesical instillation of mitomycin C in patients with non-muscle-invasive bladder cancer: A prospective multicentre randomised study in 2243 patients. Systematic review and individual patient data meta-analysis of randomized trials comparing a single immediate instillation of chemotherapy after transurethral resection with transurethral resection alone in patients with stage pTa-pT1 urothelial carcinoma of the bladder: Which patients benefit from the instillationfi Superficial transitional cell carcinoma of the bladder associated with mucosal involvement of the prostatic urethra: results of treatment with intravesical bacillus Calmette-Guerin. Conservative management of mucosal prostatic urethral involvement in patients with superficial transitional cell carcinoma of the bladder. In situ transitional cell carcinoma involvement of prostatic urethra: bacillus Calmette-Guerin therapy without previous transurethral resection of the prostate. Intravesical bacillus Calmette-Guerin for the treatment of superficial transitional cell carcinoma of the prostatic urethra in association with carcinoma of the bladder. Intravesical bacillus Calmette-Guerin therapy for in situ transitional cell carcinoma involving the prostatic urethra. Long-term effects of bacille Calmette-Guerin perfusion therapy for treatment of transitional cell carcinoma in situ of upper urinary tract. Upper urinary tract instillations in the treatment of urothelial carcinomas: a review of technical constraints and outcomes. Better dose compliance may be achieved with fewer delays in 10 dosing using the 21-day schedule. For patients with borderline renal function or minimal dysfunction, a split-dose administration of cisplatin may be considered (such as 35 mg/m2 on days 1 and 2 or days 1 and 8) (category 2B). While safer, the relative efcacy of the cisplatin-containing combination administered with such modifcations remains undefned. Patients without these adverse prognostic factors have the greatest beneft from chemotherapy. The impact of these factors in relation to immune checkpoint inhibition is not fully defned, but they remain poor prognostic indicators in general. Combinedmodality treatment and selective organ preservation in invasive bladder cancer: long-term results. N Engl J Med 2003;349:859cisplatin/gemcitabine and gemcitabine/cisplatin in patients with locally advanced or metastatic 866. A role for neoadjuvant gemcitabine plus cisplatin in musclebased chemotherapy: A single-arm, multicentre, phase 2 trial. Updated efficacy and tolerability of durvalumab in locally advanced or metastatic vinblastine, doxorubicin, and cisplatin in advanced or metastatic bladder cancer: results of a large, urothelial carcinoma [abstract]. Avelumab, an anti-programmed death-ligand 1 antibody, 5Griffiths G, Hall R, Sylvester R, et al. Avelumab in patients with metastatic urothelial carcinoma: 6Advanced Bladder Cancer Meta-analysis Collaboration. J Clin Oncol bladder cancer: update of a systematic review and meta-analysis of individual patient data 2018;6S:Abstract 330. J Clinl Oncol 2012;30:191cisplatin or fluorouracil-cisplatin with selective bladder preservation and adjuvant chemotherapy 199. Neoadjuvant combined modality program with selective untreated patients with metastatic urothelial cancer.

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Psychoeducation in acute mental health settings: is there a role for occupational therapists treatment kitty colds discount meloset on line. Psychoeducational training for schizophrenia patients background, procedure and empirical findings. An exploratory study of group education for patients on a psychiatric intensive care unit. The illness management and recovery program: rationale, development, and preliminary findings. International Handbook of Cognitive and Behavioral Treatments for Psychological Disorders (pp. For these clients it is demonstrated that psychopharmacologic treatment combined with psychosocial interventions is more effective than solely psychopharmacologic treatment. This strategy improves cognitive aspects and social functioning and consequently counteracts the deterioration caused by the illness (Huxley et al. There is a clear evidence that clients with schizophrenia have an intensive impairment of their executive functions (Morrice and Delahunty, 1996; Velligan and Bow-Thomas, 1999; Wykes et al. Schizophrenia is characterized by positive and negative symptoms, the latter being the most critical determinants of psychosocial functioning in schizophrenia (Pratt et al. The positive or productive symptoms are characterized by delusions, hallucinations, and disorganized thought, and the negative or deficits symptoms include blunting affective and poor discourse (Crow, 1980). Impairments the cognitive impairments and thought disorder that characterize schizophrenia may interfere with the development and influence of self-efficacy beliefs. These processes are essential in many different situations, such as planning the execution of tasks, making decisions, correcting errors, and responding to new information (Wykes et al. Clients with schizophrenia do poorly on neuropsychological tests reputed to tap these skills: working memory, cognitive flexibility, and planning (Wykes et al. Complementary Therapy and Psychopharmacological Treatment the psychosocial intervention approach is based on treatment without psychopharmacologic preparations and includes any activity aimed at involving the client in the social environment. Occupational therapy is performed in mental health clinics, whereas clients with schizophrenia aim mainly at social involvement using the daily routine as an organizing axis (Benetton, 1994). These interventions using activities (occupations) have a pedagogic aspect, enabling clients to learn new behaviors, to face up to the possibilities and limitations of materials and processes, to develop or use specific skills, and to experience several situations transferable from the therapeutic setting to external activities (Villares, 1998). The process of occupational therapy that focuses on the psychosocial aspect includes the major aims of enabling individuals to engage in meaningful occupations and to cope better with daily life (Finlay, 2004). Occupational therapy related to the executive functions of schizophrenia gives participants in task activities and occupations the opportunity to plan, organize, create strategies, increase personal development, experience motivation, and learn how to solve problems (Grieve, 1993). Psychopharmacologic treatment has made it possible to reduce psychotic symptoms and to prevent relapses, but it does not have the same convincing effect on cognitive or functional impairments (Penades et al. Purpose the principal purpose of occupational therapy applied in the psychosocial approach is to facilitate social involvement. The intervention provides the client with tools for imp roving their executive functions and social ability and their occupational performance. Clients who at present show impairments in cognitive function, mainly in executive functions and disabilities in basic and instrumental activities of daily living and social functioning, are invited to participate. Higher prevalence rates (close to 1%) have also been reported in recent studies conducted in Latin America and Brazil (Almeida et al. The epidemiologic studies in Brazil estimate that the incidence and prevalence are consistent with those seen in other countries. There is no consistency of the possible differences in the prevalence of schizophrenia between genders, regardless of the methodology employed in the epidemiologic surveys (Mari and Leitao, 2000). A study of psychiatric morbidity in Brasilia, Sao Paulo, and Porto Alegre showed a life-prevalence of psychotic disorders of 0. Cognitive behavior therapy is an empathic and nonthreatening technique, in which clients elaborate their experience of schizophrenia. Specific symptoms are identified as problematic by the client and become targeted for special attention. This work may include, for example, belief modification, focusing/reattribution, and normalizing of psychotic experience (Dickerson and Lehman, 2006). To be useful for independent living, this learning must be generalized to the workplace (Gunatilake et al. Occupational therapy based on cognitive rehabilitation comprises (Cook and Howe, 2003): 274 A. The occupational therapy groups include verbal elements, tasks and concrete elements that are independent of the approach used, social abilities training, social interaction, and cognitive training (Finlay, 1993). Discussion Clinically there is agreement among mental health professionals about the effects of occupational therapy interventions among schizophrenia clients with executive dysfunction. More evidence-based studies are needed to investigate detailed cognitive areas amenable to modification with such interventions. These studies would be relevant in mental health services once they improve the prospects of rehabilitation for schizophrenia sufferers and can lead to improvement in health costs. How neurocognition and social cognition influence functional change during community-based psychosocial rehabilitation for individuals with schizophrenia. Randomized controlled trial of occupational therapy in clients with treatment resistant schizophrenia. Engaging people with enduring psychotic conditions in primary mental health care and occupational therapy. Neurocognitive deficits and functional outcome in schizophrenia: are we measuring the right stufffi Esquizofrenia Refrataria a Tratamento Antipsicotico: Caracterizacao Clinica e Fatores Preditivos. Dissertacao [mestrado] Sao Paulo: Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de Sao Paulo. Adequacao e Estudo de Validade e Fidedignidade da Escala de Observacao Interativa de Pacientes Psiquiatricos Internados Aplicada as Situacoes de Terapia Ocupacional. Dissertacao [Mestrado] Apresentado ao Departamento de Neuropsiquiatria e Psicologia Medica da Universidade de Sao Paulo, Faculdade de Ribeirao Preto. Cognitive remediation therapy for out clients with chronic schizophrenia: a controlled and randomized study. Self-efficacy and psychosocial functioning in schizophrenia: a mediational analysis. Effects on the brain of a psychological treatment: cognitive remediation therapy. The effects of neurocognitive remediation on executive processing in clients with schizophrenia. Chapter 27 Behavioral Approach to Rehabilitation of Patients with Substance-Use Disorders Natalia Punanova and Tatiana Petrova At last, I learned how to clean a potato. It uses the experience gathered in one of the departments of the Narcologic Clinic of St. Therapeutic societies are organizations, sometimes voluntary, aimed at helping drug and alcohol abusers to rid themselves of substance-use disorders. The treatment is based on the philosophical concept of the 12-step programs and the method of the cognitive behavioral therapy approach. During this treatment the patient is placed in an artificial environment similar to a normal society. The patients spend more and more time and effort to get drugs and to recover from the usage of drugs. The main features of the dependency syndrome are (1) a very strong, often insatiable, need of getting drugs; (2) inability to control the dosage; (3) withdrawal; and (4) growing tolerance to drugs, that is, the need to increase the dosage with time to achieve the same effect that earlier could be achieved with lower dosages (Tschurkin and Martushov, 1999).

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A parliamentary revolt in 1816 abolished income tax in Britain treatment action campaign buy meloset paypal, and in the 1820s duties were gradually reduced too. But in Europe it was the same old story of the state piling the fiscal burdens on the backs of poor peasants and tradespeople. This was compounded, on the Continent, by tens of thousands of internal customs barriers, imposing duties on virtually everything which crossed them. The expense of government per capita was 10 percent of that in Britain, itself a country with a small state by Continental standards. As the Dublin Morning Post put it: `We read this document as if it related purely to our concerns. An Act of 1800 created federal land offices as Cincinnati, Chillicothe, Marietta, and Steubenville, Ohio, that is, right on the frontier. The minimum purchase was lowered from 640 acres, or a square mile, to 320 acres, and the buyer paid only 25 percent down, the rest over four years. This put a viable family farm well within the reach of millions of prudent, saving European peasants and skilled workmen. During the first eleven years of the 19th century, nearly 3,400,000 acres were sold to individual farmers in what was then the Northwest, plus another 250,000 in Ohio. In Alabama, government land sales rose to 600,000 acres in 1816 and to 2,280,000 in 1819. In the years after 1815, more people acquired freehold land at bargain prices in the United States than at any other time in the history of the world. Daniel Brush and a small group of Vermonters settled in Greene County, Illinois, in spring 1820. This done, Brush wrote, `No weeds or grass sprung up upon such ground the first year and the corn needed no attention with plough or hoe. They not only ground their own corn but made 350 pounds of sugar and 10 gallons of molasses from the same soil they cleared for corn. Their leader, Andrew Ten Brook, recounted: `After the first year, I never saw any scarcity of provisions. It boasted superb land, pure water, as much timber as required, and idyllic scenery. The modern mind is astonished that, even so, it was regarded as too high and there was a clamor for cheaper or even free land. He sensibly argued against a minimum price for Western lands, proposing grading by quality, and he insisted that settlers pay compensation for improvements, passing a law to this effect. In frontier areas, speculators were naturally hated and took a risk if they showed their faces. When a popular figure like General Jackson bid for a potentially valuable town lot, no one bid against him. He acquired his estate and became a reasonably wealthy man through land sales, though by the end of the war he had ceased to be interested in money. His aide, General Coffee, formed the Cypress Land Company, bought land at Muscle Shoals, and laid out the town of Florence, Alabama, where speculators and squatters bid up the government minimum to $78 an acre. They organized pressure on Congress to put through roads and they invested capital to build towns like Manchester, Portsmouth, Dayton, Columbus, and Williamsburg. A lot of speculation was on credit, and speculators went bust if they could not sell land quickly at the right price. That was how big groups like the one organized by Sir William Pulteney, the English politician, acquired huge tracts. But most settlers preferred cheaper land to the use of an infrastructure which they could create for themselves. It laid down the ground rules by statute and then, in effect, allowed an absolutely free market in land to develop. Ward, who had witnessed both systems, made a devastating comparison before a House of Commons committee in 1839. In Canada, the government, fearing speculators, had devised a complex system of controls which actually played straight into their hands. By contrast, the American free system attracted multitudes who quickly settled and set up local governments which soon acted as a restraining force on antisocial operators. There is a General Land Office in Washington with 40 subordinate district offices, each having a Registrar and Receiver. Maps, plans and information of every kind are 198 accessible to the humblest persons. By means of it, America became truly dynamic, emerging from the eastern seaboard bounded by the Appalachians and descending into the great network of river valleys beyond. Insuring rapid progress from territory to state was the best way Washington could help the settlement, though under the Constitution it could also build national roads.

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The judges realised the possibility that the seller might be getting more than he was entitled to if the buyer had paid part of the price of the yarn symptoms 4-5 weeks pregnant generic meloset 3mg mastercard, but the seller retained title to the whole of the yarn. If he sold more, he must account to the buyer for the surplus: that is, the seller was not allowed to make a profit out of the situation. His only obligation to the buyer was to repay the amount the buyer had already paid. A further practical point was the possibility that a different seller might have provided goods towards the manufacture of the new article and 440 Chapter 20: Transfer of Title by a Non-Owner those goods might also be subject to a similar retention of title clause. To hold that the retention of title clause was valid in relation to the newly manufactured article would mean that more than one person could validly claim to be the owner of the article! However, in this case, the retention of title clause related to resin which the sellers knew that the buyers intended to mix with wood chippings in order to manufacture chipboard. Borden claimed title to the finished product on the ground that they still owned the resin which had been used in the manufacture of the chipboard. The court held that the resin had ceased to exist as resin when it was subjected to an irreversible process by being mixed with hardener and incorporated into the chipboard. Further, the seller could not retain title to the chipboard for the simple reason that they had never possessed any title to the chipboard. It not only purported to retain title in goods supplied which were still in the possession of the defendants, it also asserted title to any goods which the foil had been used to manufacture. In addition to taking possession of fi50,000 worth of tin foil still in the possession of the defendants, the receiver also received fi35,000 cash, representing the proceeds of a sub-sale by the defendants. We have already seen that the plaintiffs were allowed to repossess their aluminium foil. The further question arose as to whether the fi35,000 also belonged to the plaintiffs. The court held that as property in the foil had never passed to the defendants, the proceeds of the sale of the foil by the defendants must belong to the plaintiffs. However, this aspect of the Romalpa case has been heavily criticised and subsequent cases have managed to distinguish it. One problem is that in order to trace proceeds of sale, there must be a fiduciary relationship between the buyer and the seller, which creates a duty to account for the proceeds. An example would be where the buyer, when re-selling, sells as agent of the original seller. However, in such a case, the fiduciary nature of the relationship would require the buyer to account to the original seller, not only for the price, but for any profit made on the sale. However, in Re Andrabell (1984), the court refused to hold that a fiduciary relationship had been created. The relationship between the original owner and the buyer was simply one of creditor and debtor. Until there is such a system, the problems with retention of title clauses appear set to continue. Thus when you leave home to go shopping, although you do not take your personal possessions with you, you still possess them in law. Actual, symbolic and constructive delivery In consequence, delivery may be actual, constructive or symbolic. Symbolic delivery is where something which enables the buyer to take physical delivery of the goods is delivered to the buyer. Constructive delivery means that the buyer obtains legal possession of the goods without taking physical possession. For example, the seller may have sold the buyer a stock of wine which the seller keeps in his cellars, set aside 443 Law for Non-Law Students and clearly labelled as the property of the buyer. It is not uncommon in such cases for the seller to issue the buyer with a warrant acknowledging that the seller holds the goods to the order of the buyer. The procedure by which a seller transfers constructive possession to the buyer is called an attornment. S may send a delivery order to the third party instructing the third party to deliver the goods to B. The third party may simply endorse this with an acknowledgment that he will do this. This is a detailed receipt given by the captain of a ship to a person consigning goods to his ship. The captain of the vessel signs a bill of lading stating that the goods are on board his vessel. When the goods arrive at New York, the buyer is able to present the bill of lading to the shipping company as evidence that he is the owner of the goods. It also includes documents which authorise, either by endorsement or delivery, the possessor of the document to transfer or receive goods thereby represented. A warrant is a document typically issued by a warehouseman acknowledging that he holds the goods described in the warrant on behalf of the person named in the warrant. An order is a document signed by the person entitled to possession of the goods (which may be the owner or may, for example, be a third party to whom the owner has pledged the goods as security for a 444 Chapter 21: Duties of the Buyer and Seller loan), addressed to the party who has physical possession of the goods, such as a warehouseman. The order instructs the warehouseman to deliver the goods to the person named in the order or to his nominee. In a case where S, rather than a third party, remains in physical possession of goods which B has bought, the warrant will simply be addressed by S to B. Delivery to a carrier If the contract authorises or requires the seller to send the goods to the buyer, s 32 provides that delivery of the goods to the carrier for transmission to the buyer is deemed to be a delivery of the goods to the buyer. This, as we have seen, means that property and therefore risk of loss or damage will pass to the buyer. The seller must make a contract with the carrier on behalf of the buyer on reasonable terms. If the seller does not do this and the goods are lost or damaged in transit, the buyer may decline to treat delivery to the carrier as delivery to himself. Or he may hold the seller responsible for the loss or damage and sue the seller for damages. This means that if the delivery is later or earlier than agreed, the buyer may refuse to accept delivery and may seek damages for non-delivery.

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In the job interview example treatment 360 buy cheap meloset line, the employer may not have noticed that the job applicant was friendly and engaging, and that he provided competent responses to the interview questions in the beginning of the interview. Have you ever fallen prey to the self-fulfilling prophecy or confirmation bias, either as the source or target of such biasfi Social class stereotypes of individuals tend to arise when information about the individual is ambiguous. These groups provide a powerful source of our identity and self-esteem (Tajfel & Turner, 1979). For example, if you are female, your gender in-group includes all females, and your gender out-group includes all males (Figure 12. People often view gender groups as being fundamentally different from each other in personality traits, characteristics, social roles, and interests. Because we often feel a strong sense of belonging and emotional connection to our in-groups, we develop in-group bias: a preference for our own group over other groups. This in-group bias can result in prejudice and discrimination because the out-group is perceived as different and is less preferred than our in-group. One function of prejudice is to help us feel good about ourselves and maintain a positive self-concept. This need to feel good about ourselves extends to our in-groups: We want to feel good and protect our in-groups. Scapegoating is the act of blaming an out-group when the in-group experiences frustration or is blocked from obtaining a goal (Allport, 1954). People can work together to achieve great things, such as helping each other in emergencies: recall the heroism displayed during the 9/11 terrorist attacks. Hostile aggression is motivated by feelings of anger with intent to cause pain; a fight in a bar with a stranger is an example of hostile aggression. In contrast, instrumental aggression is motivated by achieving a goal and does not necessarily involve intent to cause pain (Berkowitz, 1993); a contract killer who murders for hire displays instrumental aggression. Some researchers argue that aggression serves an evolutionary function (Buss, 2004). Although aggression provides an obvious evolutionary advantage for men, women also engage in aggression. Women typically display instrumental forms of aggression, with their aggression serving as a means to an end (Dodge & Schwartz, 1997). For example, women may express their aggression covertly, for example, by communication that impairs the social standing of another person. Another theory that explains one of the functions of human aggression is frustration aggression theory (Dollard, Doob, Miller, Mowrer, & Sears, 1939). This theory states that when humans are prevented from achieving an important goal, they become frustrated and aggressive. However, as you may have experienced as a child, not all play behavior has positive outcomes. One form of negative social interactions among children that has become a national concern is bullying. Bullying is repeated negative treatment of another person, often an adolescent, over time (Olweus, 1993). A one-time incident in which one child hits another child on the playground would not be considered bullying: Bullying is repeated behavior. The negative treatment typical in bullying is the attempt to inflict harm, injury, or humiliation, and bullying can include physical or verbal attacks. Research finds gender differences in how girls and boys bully others (American Psychological Association, 2010; Olweus, 1993). Boys tend to engage in direct, physical aggression such as physically harming others. Girls tend to engage in indirect, social forms of aggression such as spreading rumors, ignoring, or socially isolating others. Based on what you have learned about child development and social roles, why do you think boys and girls display different types of bullying behaviorfi Bullying involves three parties: the bully, the victim, and witnesses or bystanders. The experience of bullying can be positive for the bully, who may enjoy a boost to self-esteem. However, there are several negative consequences of bullying for the victim, and also for the bystanders. Bullies may be attracted to children who get upset easily because the bully can quickly get an emotional reaction this OpenStax book is available for free at cnx. Children who are overweight, cognitively impaired, or racially or ethnically different from their peer group may be at higher risk. Cyberbullying With the rapid growth of technology, and widely available mobile technology and social networking media, a new form of bullying has emerged: cyberbullying (Hoff & Mitchell, 2009). Cyberbullying, like bullying, is repeated behavior that is intended to cause psychological or emotional harm to another person. What is unique about cyberbullying is that it is typically covert, concealed, done in private, and the bully can remain anonymous. This anonymity gives the bully power, and the victim may feel helpless, unable to escape the harassment, and unable to retaliate (Spears, Slee, Owens, & Johnson, 2009). Cyberbullying can take many forms, including harassing a victim by spreading rumors, creating a website defaming the victim, and ignoring, insulting, laughing at, or teasing the victim (Spears et al. In cyberbullying, it is more common for girls to be the bullies and victims because cyberbullying is nonphysical and is a less direct form of bullying (Figure 12. Interestingly, girls who become cyberbullies often have been the victims of cyberbullying at one time (Vandebosch & Van Cleemput, 2009). The effects of cyberbullying are just as harmful as traditional bullying and include the victim feeling frustration, anger, sadness, helplessness, powerlessness, and fear. Victims will also experience lower self-esteem (Hoff & Mitchell, 2009; Spears et al. Furthermore, recent research suggests that both cyberbullying victims and perpetrators are more likely to experience suicidal ideation, and they are more likely to attempt suicide than individuals who have no experience with cyberbullying (Hinduja & Patchin, 2010). What features of technology make cyberbullying easier and perhaps more accessible to young adultsfi What can parents, teachers, and social networking websites, like Facebook, do to prevent cyberbullyingfi In 1964, in Queens, New York, a 19-year-old woman named Kitty Genovese was attacked by a person with a knife near the back entrance to her apartment building and again in the hallway inside her apartment building. When the attack occurred, she screamed for help numerous times and eventually died from her stab wounds. The bystander effect is a phenomenon in which a witness or bystander does not volunteer to help a victim or person in distress. Social psychologists hold that we make these decisions based on the social situation, not our own personality variables.

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Aileen georges marvellous medicine meloset 3mg low cost, female aged 39; hostel and long-term rough sleeper the nature of rooflessness means that people have rarely experienced just one trigger; the problem of multiple triggers is frequently discussed in the literature. Fitzpatrick and Kennedy 2000; Randall and Brown 1993; 1996; 1998; Anderson et al 1993). What tends not to be considered is the relevance of so many triggers occurring during childhood, the significance of experiencing three or more triggers in quick succession and the long-term impact of this. They experienced 3-6 traumatic-life-events respectively between the ages of 6 and 15. For Foxy, this resulted in angry conflicts at school, which further exacerbated the situation. A for Dog means cannot be placed Put on housing waiting list help in hostel/temporary housing Sleeps rough, in sheds Goes to sister for wash & & derelict buildings laundry Flat damp & cold Age 24 Offered H. It was not unusual for the child to react through disruptive/angry behaviour at school, running away from home, arguments in the home, involvement in crime, depression, stress related illnesses or feelings of isolation and loneliness. This in turn caused immense pressure on relationships within the family, in care and/or at school. The sudden shock of finding out that your parents and/or family are not related to you in the way you always thought they were, is difficult for anyone to cope with. Foxy, male aged 32; housed 8 years the impact of parental separation on children has, until recently, been underestimated. Recent research linked parental separation with clinical depression in under four-yearolds (Guardian 2002). The literature highlights the impact of stepparents on the incidence of rooflessness, especially for young males. There is no mention in existing literature of either inter or intra-generational1 homelessness in England. However, there was systematic evidence in this research to suggest that there are a number of both inter and intra-generational elements that are inextricably linked with rooflessness. For example, intergenerational triggers were alcoholism, time in care, abuse, domestic violence, violence, frequently changing home address and homelessness. Evidence of more than one sibling becoming homeless, suggested that intra-generational rooflessness existed. Once roof/homeless, one sibling often taught the other how to survive and how to get access to accommodation. Mary, female aged 55; temporary accommodation this is an important finding that needs further investigation, but suggests that where trigger factors exist and are not dealt with, they can be transmitted down the generations and/or within families. It also suggests a need for tackling social problems within society and the family regardless of whether they trigger rooflessness for that individual. It is possible that more support is needed for families to deal with problems and learn new coping strategies. There also appears to be a need for greater awareness of the immense pressure placed on some children as they grapple with adult problems and issues during their formative years. For example, there appeared to be an over-representation of people with an alcoholic parent during childhood among the interviewees. We know that alcoholism is a family problem, as the nature of alcoholism means that the rest of the family are unavoidably affected ( An alcoholic parent also increases the likelihood of violence and child abuse occurring within the home. Al-anon identify a number of problems that teenagers with alcoholic parents experience and carry through to adulthood. These include problems with trust, self-esteem and self-worth, fear of authority figures, criticism and/or confrontational situations as well as problems with forming relationships and expressing emotions ( This is a good example of multiple triggers, with one trigger causing or being associated with other triggers of rooflessness and thereby increasing the potency of all those triggers. They also appeared to be more likely to form relationships with one or more violent partners or become the violent partner. More disturbingly, there seemed to be an anaesthetising affect from early experiences of violence that reduced the fear of aggression and violence on the streets, thus making the street feel safe in comparison to home. Sandra, female aged 16; hostel Both alcoholic and domestic violent parents appeared to acclimatise young people to the homeless culture making it easier for them to join the culture. Thus when triggers of rooflessness were mounting they were more susceptible to or found it easier to become roofless. Moreover, the impact of these triggers, their accumulation and interaction compounded the problems experienced by people not yet emotionally mature. Thus they may have reacted in an irrational way or made seemingly foolish or bad decisions. However, it would appear that such failings are more to do with family influences and learned coping strategies. This suggests that rather than choosing to be roofless, some teenagers experiencing extreme circumstances during childhood are pushed into rooflessness. Rooflessness appears to be the solution to their problems rather than the problem. The relationship between triggers of rooflessness and the complex nature of family backgrounds and circumstances can be difficult to grapple with. This is complicated further by the realisation that the very systems designed to protect young people, on occasions, appear to inadvertently create triggers of rooflessness. For example, those spending time away from the family home during childhood are known to be exceptionally vulnerable to rooflessness, especially care leavers (Randall and Brown 1993; Anderson and Quilgars 1993). The literature on care leavers tends to focus on transitions from childhood to adult, leaving home early and institutionalisation. This demonstrates the need to view time in care in terms of the life-course for its impact to be fully understood. Children rarely stayed with one carer and were likely to experience a series of separations and/or rejections. Furthermore, care has been shown not to be the safe haven people intended, with children remaining vulnerable to abuse and exploitation both in care-homes and foster-placements. Simply being in care means that the child is likely to have experienced a number of significant triggers of rooflessness. The government recognised the impact of care on adult outcomes and introduced the Quality Protects programme in 1998 and changed legislation to ensure care leavers have adequate guidance, assistance, finance and opportunities to make the transition from child to adult and function as a full and equal member of society (see policy chapter).

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The clinician could consider what level of functional impairment is present and whether any symptoms are seen in other domains treatment jammed finger order meloset 3mg amex. It may be more appropriate to view the information from additional informants as a way of confirming the pervasiveness of impairment. Many of the studies failed to include a measure of internal consistency to enable confidence in the parent and teacher ratings themselves before comparing them. Three studies with adolescents (309-311) all demonstrated low to moderate agreement between self-reports and parent reports. Six out of seven studies showed low agreement between self-reports and thirdparty reports (parents, partners, friends, family members) using a variety of rating scales (294, 296, 312-315). The seventh study found good agreement between self-reports and third-party reports (parents, partners, friends) (297). One possible reason for the difference is that participants in this last study (297) were recruited from the general community, rather than clinic samples as in the other six studies. Discrepancies between self-report and third-party informants may also be influenced by factors such as conflict between the two over behaviour, communication problems or bias in partner choice (313). Four studies were included that addressed the impact of maternal depression on maternal reports of child symptoms (308, 317-319). The most extensive work on differences in how symptoms are perceived comes from a study in which Asian and Western mental health staff rated the same children based on videotapes (325). The last may apply in Australia, where, for example, it is culturally appropriate for Indigenous children to move around the classroom to check with each other (T Westerman, Indigenous Psychological Services, personal communication). Issues for Families, Parents and Carers, page 183) mean that family functioning is frequently impaired. The General Scale of the Family Assessment, developed as part of the Ontario Child Health Study (330) and used extensively in Australia, including the Western Australian Child Health Survey, is provided in Appendix H. It is important to consider how much is added to the accuracy of the diagnosis by Guidelines on Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 54 the incremental information generated by these measures (331). The resultant sensitivities and specificities were mixed (low, moderate and good). Each looked at different combinations of measures, and the resultant sensitivities and specificities were mixed (low, moderate and good). The utility of available data is complicated by such measures usually being included with diagnostic assessment, so the additional information they provide is difficult to ascertain. To date, studies examining neuropsychological tests of executive functioning have not been able to demonstrate positive predictive power, and especially negative Guidelines on Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 55 predictive power, that is sufficiently high to recommend the use of these tests in clinical settings with children or adults. Consequently, individuals with symptoms of inattention may be more likely to warrant neuropsychological assessment. Both the sensitivities and specificities and the positive/negative predictive values found were mixed (low, moderate and good). Each looked at a different combination of measures, and the sensitivities and specificities found were mixed (low, moderate and good). Guidelines on Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 56 the majority of studies used clinic-referred samples; however, one (350) took a random sample of participants from a general school population. The combination of neuropsychological measures appears to increase the diagnostic utility of these tests, but not to a reliable level. Further research and validation are required to establish the utility of these findings. Among participants aged less than 16 years, overall accuracy increased from 80 to 90%. However, the possibility of misdiagnosis when using these measures alone remains unacceptably high and there are several limitations in the research to date that must be addressed. In particular, there are few data on test-retest and inter-rater reliability, and rarely have studies been undertaken using blinded procedures (381). The heterogeneity across the regions assessed and the measures used was significant. As the authors note, one of the key limitations of the research is that only children and young adolescents were studied, with no participants over 15 years. Similarly, the study population was primarily male, with only half the studies including females. Variation in reporting and the inconsistent use of standardised measures make it difficult to compare the results of individual studies. A subset of children may be sensitive to certain foods or food additives and may benefit from careful exclusion diets. Access to stimulant medication is controlled by legislation in all Australian jurisdictions, with requirements for registration of public and private sector prescribers and of stimulant prescription recipients. The ability to initiate a stimulant prescription is in general limited to specialists in the fields of paediatrics and psychiatry. In most jurisdictions there is provision for a co-prescriber, typically a general practitioner, who can issue prescriptions when the registered prescriber is unavailable, or in some instances as routine after an initial period of observation, but with periodic specialist review. Currently, New South Wales and Western Australia are the only two Australian jurisdictions with formal processes for auditing stimulant medication. Uniform national regulations should be established for the prescribing of stimulant medications. In addition, a uniform national system of recording prescribing information should be adopted. Sawyer et al (234) studied a subset of the children and adolescents recruited for the National Survey of Mental Health and Wellbeing in Australia. The most commonly utilised health services were paediatricians, followed by family doctors, and 12. The distribution of service providers probably varies in different settings within Australia. In Western Australia, for children and adolescents under the age of 18 years, over 90% of those prescribed stimulants were treated by paediatricians and 8. Sawyer et al found that counselling was the most frequently provided service by school services and by health services. The opportunity for a co-prescriber has proven especially important for patients living in rural and remote settings (385). In Australia, the majority of services for adults exist within the private sector, with limited adult public mental health services willing or able to take on the management of these clients. The reasons for these differences are complex, but include lack of recognised expertise in some geographical areas, lack of availability of services in general and in some places lack of alternatives to medication prescription. Other factors associated with attendance at school or health services are parental perception of need and the presence of comorbid symptoms (234). The degree to which hyperactivity is perceived as a problem in Aboriginal communities is not clear from these data. Symptoms of hyperactivity were reported more commonly amongst urban children in comparison with remote children (18. Guidelines on Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 64 There may be a number of explanations for this discrepancy. Alternatively, some Indigenous communities may have different beliefs about what constitutes normal behaviour and attention span, and to what extent any differences constitute a problem.